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2

An evaluation of the literature


Literature searching for this dissertation has been rather like a munching a ring doughnut - substantial around the periphery, but disappointingly empty in the middle. The literature surrounding this study has a broad base, covering many related areas and this is reviewed below. However, the questions central to this project have not, it would appear, been previously researched.

There is a growing body of work that reflects the importance of congregational song in liturgy (Bell 2000; Funk 1991; Huijbers 1974; Winter 1984) and further material on how to facilitate this (Bell 2000; Bell & Maule 1987; Rendler 1994; Tamblyn 1971). Whist it is widely recognised that active participation in liturgy is an important factor in awakening, nurturing and keeping faith (Gaupin 1992; Gaupin 2003; Green & Green 2000; Hooper 1986; Pottebaum et. al. 1992; Pritchard 1992; Tarasar 1983; Westerhoff 1980) there is comparatively limited reference to the significance song in this process (Bell 2000; Earey and Myers 2001; Gaupin 1992; Haystead 1995) 1.

There has been plenty written about what is, or is not, appropriate for sung worship - the sources are too numerous to warrant listing, as that debate has rumbled on in the church for centuries. What is worthy of attention here is the growing consensus among prominent church musicians and liturgists that it is necessary to re-think the repertoire of congregational songs used in churches today to include a wider variety of musical fare appropriate to both the theology and the musical abilities of the people (Bell 2000; Dakers 1991; Giles 2004; Page 2004). Couple all this with Marie-Therese Winter's efforts to tease-out a theology of song (Winter 1984) and there is hope that the whole assembly might be at last be enabled to sing to their God.

There are, however, other contributory factors in the arena of congregational song. We live in a performance orientated culture (Bell 2000 p113; Giles 2004), a culture that has crept into our churches and schools, disabling the voices of adults and children alike. The pervasive forces that are undermining congregational song are stronger than those actively working to promote it.

Grace Davie's Religion in Britain since 1945 - a standard text on the sociology of religion for this period - admirably provides the socio-religious background against which this study is set. Davie takes a brief look at the role played by church schools and school collective worship in perpetuating the tradition of a religious culture in an increasingly unchurched society (Davie1994 p6 & p134-135). The provision of collective worship in schools is currently enshrined in law; all maintained schools are legally required to provide a daily act of collective worship that is 'wholly or mainly of a broadly Christian character' (Education Reform Act 1988). The implications of this requirement, and the Government's controversial attempts at clarification issued in Circular 1/94 (DfE 1994), are comprehensively explored in Collective Worship in Schools (RE Council for England and Wales 1996). Further material focuses on religious education (The Durham Report 1970; Francis 1987; Watson 1993), collective worship (Hall 2004; RE Council of England and Wales, The National Association of SACRES, The Inter Faith Network for the UK 1997) or both (Culham College Institute 1992), but none of this gives music more than a passing mention.

Regarding church schools, The Way Ahead (Archbishops' Council 2001) is the most comprehensive text, and is the source that comes closest to the specifics of this study (transferable patterns of sung worship). Governing and Managing Church Schools (Lankshear & Hall 2003) gives useful background information. Other sources cover links between churches and schools (Lankshear 2002; Wood 2003), but not from a musical perspective.

What is sung during collective worship has an enormous impact on the body of Christian song acquired by the young people of today, because whilst only about a fifth of the nation's children are churchgoers 2, nearly all of them attend school. There has been no research examining the how the repertoire used in school collective worship affects young people's ability to participate in the sung worship of the church.

The sung content of collective worship has been gradually moving away from that which is the norm in churches for the last thirty-five years. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, schools supplemented traditional hymns with newer 'school hymns', most commonly those found in Someone's Singing, Lord (Harrop 1973) and Come and Praise (Marshall-Taylor 1978). At the same time, widespread liturgical reforms and the growth of the charismatic movement lead to all kinds of churches experimenting with new forms of worship, and in the process, adopting new songs. The musical gap between school and church widened.

    'Concern has been voiced to the Commission over the lack of a repertoire of music common both to schools and to the Church. It should be possible for clergy and teachers to ensure both that churches include some of the school's repertoire in their own, and that schools make room in their assemblies for some traditional hymns.' (Archbishops' Commission on Church Music 1992 p207).
Many churches have made attempts to accommodate songs from the 'school hymn' genre into their worship, recognising the importance of providing obvious links between school and church worship, but school hymns have not been fully integrated into the regular worship of the church. Although some parishes have readily accepted school hymns into the family service and Sunday School, such hymns do not transfer readily into regular Sunday worship, be that Parish Eucharist, Matins or Mass. In Tune With Heaven,

    'registers concern that in the future many churches will find themselves increasingly obliged to base their choice of hymns upon the repertoire currently being offered in primary schools. The popularity of the two volumes of the BBC's Come and Praise, as used each week by a million children taking part in the 'Together' assembly, sets a limit to their taste for religious songs and hymns. Some have welcomed such material and use it extensively in Sunday School or Junior Church. Others, however, are anxious lest children are being denied the opportunity to encounter at an early age some of the finest examples of hymnody' (Archbishops' Commission on Church Music 1992 p79 - 80).
Since the publication of In Tune With Heaven (Archbishops' Commission on Church Music 1992) the transferability of school songs into church has been further weakened. Although 'most primary schools comply with the legal requirement for collective worship' (OFSTED 1996 sec 213) this does not mean that schools have to sing every day. Moreover, the character of what is sung during collective worship is rapidly changing. In recent years, traditional hymns have fallen from favour, increasingly replaced by 'pop style' songs, sung to upbeat CD backing tracks (Johnson & Johnson 1991, 1998, 2002; Wright,???? 3) have become increasingly popular in schools. There is no doubt that children can easily identify with such material, or that many find the songs enjoyable. Teachers are delighted to find ready packaged material that fits into the curriculum, requiring no musical expertise on their part. Best of all, while the children are singing along, having a good time, they are learning about God. Everybody is happy. Or are they?

Lionel Dakers (formerly Director of The Royal School of Church Music) puts it quite simply - 'Popularity does not necessarily imply that something is good' (Dakers 1991 p64). The use of such materials in Anglican schools, 'in which the law expects the daily worship to reflect Anglican beliefs and traditions of worship' (Lankshear 2003 p99), is a particular cause for concern, as songs in this style do little to suitably prepare young people for participation in Sunday worship.

What is perhaps most striking about this body of literature is not what is present, but that which is absent. In Tune With Heaven acknowledges the changes in school music provision as being a threat to the choral tradition (Archbishops' Commission on Church Music, 1992, p135), but does not consider whether these same changes might have an effect on young people's participation in congregational song. It does, however, recognise that churches and schools must work together.

    'Continuing co-operation between church and school will be needed if the music in our services is to improve and, indeed, if the presence of young people is to guarantee the future of our congregations' (Archbishops' Commission on Church Music 1992 p205).
Whilst there is critique of the quality and usage of children's hymns in church (Bell 2000 p42; Dakers 1994 p66; Pritchard 1992 p5-6, p74, p145) there has been no such questioning of the use of similar material in schools. There exists a plethora of literature offering ideas for collective worship of the 'pre-packaged assembly' kind, both in book form 4 and online 5. Numerous further collections contain songs written specifically for school assemblies (the sizeable output of Mark and Helen Johnson is notable 6). Amidst this wealth of material, however, little has been written about the songs themselves, or the impact they might have on the developing faith of the children they are designed to serve.

Geoff Marshall-Taylor, through his choices as editor of Come and Praise (originally published in 1978), has had an unrivalled influence over the body of song of two generations of school children. Perhaps the prevailing attitude towards sacred song in collective worship can be summed up in his rather disturbing comment: 'If I'm honest, I can't say that I've always given a lot of thought to the songs I choose for assembly or the role they can play' (Marshall-Taylor, www.assemblies.org.uk/resources/music.php accessed 29th November 2005). Now possessing a greater understanding following his visits to a number of primary schools, the rest of Marshall-Taylor's article 7 offers some useful ideas as to how songs can be used in different ways to enhance collective worship; but he does not touch on the catechetical nature of song, or the issue of transferable patterns of worship.

The only reference I have found that comes close to making the link between the songs in school collective worship and participation in sung church worship is this short paragraph in The Way Ahead: 8

    'One of the most essential aspects of the link between Church and school is to establish transferable patterns of worship. We are very concerned that collective worship in schools … does not have any common features or transferability to the worship in churches on Sunday' (Archbishops' Council 2001 p56).
It is therefore clear that this is an area where there is some work to be done.



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  1. For a fuller exploration see the essay, 'I will sing the wondrous story' - The Significance of Sacred Song. App.p22-25. Back to text
  2. The national average percentage of churchgoers under 15 years of age is 19% (Brierley 2005 p2.8) Back to text
  3. James Wright, who publishes and distributes his material through his own company, Gottalife Productions, has failed to respond to my emails asking for the dates of publication of two of the items listed in his online catalogue (at http://www.gottalife.com/productions/home.htm). He has, however, sent me a sample CD which can found on the inside of the back cover of the appendices [apologies to those reading this online]. Back to text
  4. The most recent key texts are Lamont, 2001; Lamont, 2003; Seaman, 2004. Back to text
  5. A list of websites containing ideas for collective worship can be found in the appendices, App.p26-30. Back to text
  6. The Out of the Ark Music 'New songs and musicals sampler' CD contains numerous examples of Mark and Helen Johnson's work. This can be found inside the back cover of the appendices [apologies to those reading this online]. Back to text
  7. Geoff Marshall-Taylor's article is reproduced in full in the appendices, App.p31-34. Back to text
  8. The Way Ahead (Archbishops' Council 2001) is commonly known as The Dearing Report. Back to text
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